Grammar Check: The word data is plural, so be sure to use plural verb forms with it (e.g., correct: the data are; incorrect: the data is.
What Kind of Paper Are You Writing?
What Is an Abstract?
The Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
Reference List
Additional Sections
Piecing It All Together
In unit 3, you learned how to stage your paper with margins, double-spacing, and a title page. In this unit, we will present the different elements (sections) of content that go into a paper written in APA style. We will also present Grammar Checks with tips on avoiding common grammatical errors. During your academic career, you will write many different types of papers. Two types discussed here are the class or term paper and the research paper.
There is one major difference between a term paper and a research paper. Can
you describe this difference?
Grammar Check: The word data is plural, so be sure to use plural verb forms with it (e.g., correct: the data are; incorrect: the data is.
Because a research paper includes more sections than a term paper, we will discuss first the elements of a term paper.
Suppose your teacher has assigned you a term paper on the concept of diffusion of responsibility (Darley & Latané, as cited in Kulis, 2004) using the Kitty Genovese murder as a real-life example of this phenomenon. A good term paper will go beyond a simple summary of the topic being addressed and will likely present an argument agreeing with, rebutting, or comparing specific viewpoints on the topic.
What information might you include in the term paper just described?
Two main sections are included in most term papers: the main body and the conclusion.
APA TIP: Do not forget the title page and the reference list! The title page and the reference list are always part of an APA-style manuscript and are generally not considered as part of the page count of a paper.
The main body of your term paper will probably consist of several subsections, including:
The conclusion may or may not contain subsections, but it should include the following information:
Each section and subsection of your paper should be formatted as described in unit 3 (e.g., the entire paper should be double-spaced, each new paragraph should begin with an indention, and so on). Remember to hit the enter key only once when double-spacing a paper and that the entire text (i.e., the main body and the conclusion) comprises contiguous sections. What does this mean?
Note: Individual instructors may deviate from some of the conventions just described, so be sure to confirm what your teacher requires.
Grammar Check: You may come across the Latin abbreviations e.g., and i.e., in your readings and may also have occasion to use them in your papers. The first, e.g., means "for example," and the second, i.e., means "in other words."
You will use the abbreviations e.g., and i.e., only inside parentheses; outside of parentheses, you must spell out for example and in other words.
In the previous section, we summarized the elements of a term paper. A research paper is generally longer, somewhat more complex, and has more sections than a term paper. Often, a research paper will require you to state a hypothesis (or hypotheses), which you then will attempt to support by collecting data (e.g., by conducting an experiment) and by analyzing those data to test your hypothesis.
Grammar Check: Notice the words than and then were used in the previous paragraph. There is a semantic difference between the words than and then. Than is used to make a distinction between things (i.e., to make a comparison); then is never used to make comparisons.
Let us again imagine that your teacher has designed a group-experiment activity to investigate the phenomenon of diffusion of responsibility (Darley & Latané, as cited in Kulis, 2004). Your entire class will participate in the experiment and will collect and analyze data to test a hypothesis stated about this phenomenon. Your assignment is to write a research paper on the findings of this experiment.
What information might you include in the research paper just described?
Most research papers comprise five main sections:
APA TIP: Like the term paper, the research paper must include a title page and a reference list. Double-check your research papers to eliminate grammatical and spelling errors. The formatting discussed in Unit 3 applies as well to research papers.
Because each of these sections more than likely calls for at least one subsection, we will discuss each separately below. First, please review the next topic on headings and on using subheadings for APA-style papers with subsections.
APA-style papers have more than one heading in the body of the paper, and they can have as many as five heading levels (American Psychological Association [APA], 2001, pp. 62–63). Depending on how many headings and subheadings your paper has, you will follow slightly different conventions for each level of heading used. Most research papers you write will have between two
A main heading (e.g., the title of your paper on page two of the term-paper manuscript and on page three of the research-paper manuscript) will be centered and will be in title case. If you are writing a paper with two-level headings, your subheadings will be flush-left, italicized, and in title case (see APA, 2001, p. 290).
The title of your paper (e.g., on page two of the term-paper manuscript and on page three of the research-paper manuscript) will be centered and will be in title case, regular font. This title must appear exactly as it does on the title page. For a research paper, the heading Abstract (on page two of the manuscript) also appears centered and in regular font. If you are writing a paper with two-level headings, your subheadings will be flush-left, in boldface, and in title case (see APA, 2009, p. 62).
A third-level heading will be indented and in boldface, but will not be in title case; rather it is put in sentence case (i.e., only the first letter of the first word is capitalized). A period immediately follows this heading and the text of your paragraph begins directly after the period (see APA, 2009, p. 62). Please refer to the APA Publication Manual for more specific examples of heading levels.
APA TIP: Because you may need to use multiple-level headings for your term or research papers, we recommend that you first create an outline to determine, in advance, how many levels you will be using. This outline will assist you in organizing your paper.
Students often become frustrated when writing an abstract and are frequently uncertain as to what information should be included. The abstract of an APA-style paper is one of the most important, and one of the most difficult, sections to write. This section is a concise but comprehensive summary of the entire paper. It should include specific details about:
Most authors prefer to draft the abstract of a research paper last, although this section appears directly after the title page of such papers. Why would an author write this section last when it is the first text presented in a research paper?
You may be wondering if it is necessary to write an abstract for a term paper, especially because unit 3 did not indicate you would have to do so. Many review articles (similar to term papers) do include an abstract, so you should confirm with your instructor if one is required for your term paper.
APA TIP: The abstract is a one-paragraph section of the APA-style paper. It is a short yet thorough summary of the entire paper. It is the only section of the paper that does not get indented, and it should be from 150 to 250 words in length (see APA, 2009, p. 27).
Different types of information can be included in the abstract, depending upon the type of paper or article you have written (see APA, 2009, p. 27).
After your last line of text for the abstract, you will insert a page break to begin the main text of your research paper (please refer to unit 3 as a refresher in how to insert a page break).
The introduction of an APA-style research paper sets the tone for the entire body of work. In it, you will provide your reader with all the background information available on your topic. There will almost certainly be more than one subsection for your introduction, so you should carefully plan the organization of your introduction in advance.
Like a term paper, a research paper should begin with at least one introductory paragraph on the topic you are presenting. In this paragraph, you will alert the reader to the research problem under consideration. You should also describe the relevance of your topic and state clearly the hypothesis you will test.
Background information on your topic (i.e., the existing body of literature that relates to your topic) should be presented in the introduction. It is very important to establish a context for your paper by summarizing the work that has already been done in your area of interest. Often, published research will serve as a springboard for your own study.
APA TIP: The bulk of your citations will be presented in the introduction section. Include only scholarly sources in your paper. A Web site such as Wikipedia is not considered an appropriate source because it is not peer-reviewed (i.e., anyone can write to that site and edit the site so the information is not properly monitored for accuracy).
The APA convention (2009, pp. 67–68) is to acquaint the reader with pertinent research through "economy of expression." This means that you should include findings from studies that are directly germane to your topic. It is unnecessary and undesirable to provide details that relate only tangentially to your topic.
The APA (2009) also advises against the use of overly technical language and complex sentence structure. Scientific writing reads best when it is short and to the point. The writing should be crisp and free of spelling and grammatical errors. Good writers avoid redundancy as well (refer to APA, pp. 67–68).
Grammar Check: Students frequently confuse the words to, too, and two. The first to means "in the direction of." The second too means "also" or "abundance," and the third two is simply the number 2.
After you have sufficiently and succinctly presented the background information on your topic, you should develop the rationale for your paper. Doing so will require you to explain your approach to solving the problem under examination (APA, 2009, p. 27–28), and it will provide a logical transition into the next major section of the research paper.
APA TIP: When discussing the background literature for your topic, please use the past tense. For example: Kulis (2004) stated . . . is correct. Kulis (2004) states . . . is incorrect.
The method section of a research paper is intended to provide your reader with explicit detail on exactly how you conducted your study. It should read much like a recipe for your reader to follow. A research report relies on empiricism or objectivity. It must be written clearly enough for another researcher to replicate the study. What does replicate mean and why is it important?
To provide your reader with a complete description of your study or experiment, you will organize your method section into smaller subsections. The subsections generally include the following headings:
It may be necessary to include more subsections in your method section depending on how complex your study is or how many experiments your paper represents. Brief descriptions of the headings listed follow.
It is essential to describe the characteristics of the participants of your study. For example, did you recruit human participants or did you use animals? You should describe participants' gender and age (usually a mean or average age), and you may include other distinctive traits such as ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, or health status.
Grammar Check: Please learn the difference among the words their, there, and they're. Their is the possessive form of "they." There indicates location. They're is an abbreviation for "they are." Note: The APA frowns upon the use of contractions, so please use "they are" instead of "they're."
It is also prudent to discuss the way your participants were recruited for participation in the study and whether or not they were compensated for their contribution. Additionally, the matters of confidentiality and informed consent should be addressed (APA, 2009, pp. 16–17).
APA TIP: The term participant is preferred over subject because the latter implies passivity. Subject may be used when discussing animals or persons incapable of providing informed consent for participation (e.g., young children and individuals with developmental disabilities).
Note: Please visit the following link for detailed information on the University of Maryland University College policy on conducting research involving human subjects: UMUC Policies Academic Affairs 130.25.
The research design of your paper is like a blueprint for your study. In this subsection, you will inform the reader whether you conducted a survey, a correlation, an experiment, or used some other type of research design. You will justify why you chose this particular method over another (e.g., time or budgetary constraints). All of your variables will be described and operationally defined.
How does the research design differ from the statistical design?
It is vital to describe the materials or any special apparatus used in your study. For example, suppose in studying the phenomenon of diffusion of responsibility (Darley & Latané, as cited in Kulis, 2004), you want to measure a biological index such as heart rate. How will you achieve that? Will you simply provide participants with a questionnaire about their estimated heart rate or will you use a more objective measure such as a heart-rate monitor?
APA Focus: Describe an Apparatus
You and your class are conducting an experiment to examine the concepts of diffusion of responsibility (Darley & Latané, as cited in Kulis, 2004) and spectator inaction (Sagarin & Lawler-Sagarin, 2005). One measure used in your experiment is participants' reaction time to an event. Please describe briefly an apparatus you might use to quantify reaction time:
If you administer any tests or questionnaires (e.g., an IQ test), you must describe the way that instrument is administered (e.g., self-administration, interview method, online questionnaire), describe the nature of the items on that test or questionnaire, and provide a few examples of the items on the test or questionnaire. You must also include details for any published instruments used in your study (i.e., the author and year of publication and validity and reliability data).
Finally, it is wise to include the entire instrument or instruments used as an appendix in your research paper. Why should you attach this in an appendix?
You will learn more about appendices in unit 5 of this tutorial.
In the procedure subsection, you describe fully the way each step of your research was conducted. This subsection is truly analogous to a recipe in that each step of the experiment is presented clearly and precisely for your reader. For example, a description of how you assigned participants to each condition of your experiment or study should precede a narrative on instructions provided to your participants.
Likewise, if you quantified participants' reaction time to a witnessed event, you would describe the presentation of the event before explaining the way you measured their reactions to that event.
Grammar Check: Please be mindful of the possessive forms of your words. The term participant's reaction refers to one person, whereas the term participants' reaction refers to more than one individual.
It is crucial to organize your procedures logically so that your study can be replicated.
Your results section will immediately follow the method section. This portion of the research paper offers a summary of the findings in your study. The data that were collected and analyzed are reported to the reader (APA, 2009, pp. 32–35). What does reported mean?
You will not interpret the findings in this section of the research paper.
This section, like the previous sections, may have several subsections. It is a convention to provide the most salient or unexpected findings in text and to report other statistics (e.g., raw data) in either tabular or graphical format. The statistical significance, power, and effect size found in your study must also be reported.
Some special language, called statistical notation, is used for reporting your statistics in text. Note: In unit 5 we will describe the standards for reporting data in statistical notation, in tables, and in figures. For a detailed explanation of the different statistical analyses you might report, please refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2009, pp. 33–34).
The outcome of your study will be reported in the results section, but you will interpret the findings in the discussion section of your research paper. The discussion is frequently confused with a reiteration of the previous sections. Recall that the APA (2009) warns against such redundancy. Rather than simply repeat the purpose, method, and results of the study, you should explain what the results mean and what their implications might be.
Grammar Check: Although the discussion is often considered the most creative section of the research paper, please remember to use economy of expression in your writing (APA, 2009, pp. 67–68).
There may be subsections in the discussion section, particularly if more than one experiment was conducted for your study. It will be as important to logically organize your discussion as it was to organize your introduction.
In addition to discussing the implications of your findings, either practical or theoretical, you should spend a good portion of time highlighting the strengths and the weaknesses of your study. If the outcome of your study was unexpected or contrary to your hypothesis, the discussion section is where you will attempt to explain why this occurred. Much of your discussion will be conjectural and subjective, but you owe it to your reader to address the potential reasons for any of your results.
The discussion is also a wonderful forum for making additional predictions or for making suggestions for future research.
APA TIP: Take full advantage of the discussion as an opportunity to relay the practical import of your topic (APA, 2009, pp. 35–36). In other words, what contribution to science does your paper make?
After the last line of text in your discussion, insert a page break. The reference list immediately follows your discussion.
The last mandatory section of any APA-style paper is the reference list. Recall from unit 2 that any in-text citations made in the body of your paper must be fully referenced in a reference list at the end of your paper. Why is this list of references necessary and required?
The reference list is placed on a new page, immediately following insertion of a page break at the end of your discussion. The following conventions for a reference list must be adhered to:
The reference list is titled "References" (always centered, always plural, no boldface).
The font style and size should be consistent with the rest of your paper.
References get alphabetized (never numbered) by the first author's last name.
For most class papers, references are put in single-space, with a hanging indent (see Figures 4.1.a and 4.1.b to properly format these) and a double-space between references. Check with your professor for any variants on this format (e.g., single-spaced references; see Figures 4.2.a, 4.2.b).
For papers that will be submitted for publication, references are put in double-space, also with a hanging indent.
In this section, we will demonstrate the way to format double-spaced references in MS Word 2010. Because you will have staged your paper in double-spaced format, there is no need to adjust the line spacing when you are preparing a manuscript for a class paper or for publication. You will need to insert a hanging indent for each reference, however. Figure 4.1.a demonstrates how to do this.
The best way to build references for publication is simply to type each reference onto a new page (i.e., the page immediately following your discussion section) in the current, double-spaced format. Be sure to hit the Enter key only once between references. Next, select the entire reference list with your mouse and then follow these steps:
MS Word 2007 and MS Word 2010
Go to the Edit pull-down menu and select Paragraph.
Go to the Indentation section of this dialogue box and in Special, choose Hanging. The default should be 0.5." If it is not, change the Hanging Indent to read 0.5" and click OK.
Figure 4.1.a
Formatting Double-Spaced References (MS Word 2007 and 2010)
Your reference list will now be in the correct APA format. The finished reference list should look like Figure 4.1.b (please refer to APA, 2009, pp. 193–224 for more details on construction of a precise reference list).
Figure 4.1.b
Double-Spaced References
Your instructor may require single-spaced references. The following (Figures 4.2.a, 4.2.b) will show you how to do this.
MS Word 2007 and MS Word 2010
On the Home tab select Paragraph.
Under Spacing, select Single for line spacing.
To the left of the Line Spacing area, change After from 0 pt to 12 pt. This will place a double space in between each reference.
Go to the Indentation section of this dialogue box and in Special, choose Hanging. The default should be 0.5." If it is not, change the Hanging Indent to read 0.5" and click OK.
Figure 4.2.a
Formatting Single-Spaced References (MS Word 2007 and 2010)
Figure 4.2.b
Single-Spaced References
It is often necessary to extrapolate information from many different sources of varying types. For instance, you may have retrieved some definitions relevant to your topic from an encyclopedia or dictionary. You also may have reviewed portions of, or entire, textbooks and journal articles. Some of these journal articles may have been in print and are not currently available online, while others may be available in both formats.
Then too, there are sources that are available from online journals and no printed version of this material exists. Finally, there are often times when you may need to refer to a specific website or you have attended a conference and have used this material as background information for your paper.
A source's specific form requires you to construct its reference in a specific format. Many of the references used in this tutorial follow the rules set forth by the APA (2009, pp. 193-224; 2007, pp. 1–24) for specific forms. Refer to the references in Figure 4.3 below.
Figure 4.3
Examples of Different Reference Forms
Notice that two of the above references include the phrase Retrieved from (Gado, 2007; Kulis, 2004). It is obvious the first source represented (Gado) was taken from the Internet because it contains a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or website address. It is not as apparent for the reference for Geis and Huston (1983), however. That reference contains a new feature added to the possible different reference forms by the APA in 2007 (see pp. 1-24). This feature, referred to as a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), replaces a URL for many online databases.
The DOI will enable a reader to retrieve articles and resources that may no longer be available at the original URL. Think of the DOI as an analog to the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) that is available inside every book you purchase. Like an ISBN, the DOI is a permanent tag for online-source material and having a DOI will allow one to locate and retrieve a published resource even if the source has moved from one Internet address to another (APA, 2007).
If a DOI is available, you will use that number in lieu of the URL. Because inclusion of a DOI is a relatively new classifying label, you may not find one for each source. In such cases, you should continue to use a URL (APA, 2007).
A source may take numerous forms, so we recommend that you refer back to the APA (2009, pp. 193–224; 2007, pp. 1–24) for precise details.
Your paper may require you to include materials used in collecting, analyzing, and reporting data. Tables, appendixes, and figures are the appropriate sections of the research paper in which to present such materials. These sections immediately follow a page break after your reference list in the order presented below:
The next unit of this tutorial will address the types of ancillary materials and information that are presented in tables, figures, and appendices. It will also show you the appropriate format for them.
A lot of ground has been covered in this unit regarding the content of each section required of term and research papers. It is essential that you understand that the order of each type of paper does not vary. Although the conventions described in this unit can be daunting, students often find comfort in having these templates to follow in writing their term and research papers.
Please review the following content items on the left and click and drag each item into the correct section of a research paper, which is represented by the puzzle pieces on the right.
For example, one of the below items belongs in the Results section of a paper. Identify that item and then click and drag the Results puzzle piece onto the smaller puzzle-icon to the left of that item.
American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., second printing). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychological Association. (2007). APA style guide to electronic references. Washington, DC: Author.
Kulis, J. V. (2004). The beauty of intervention. Professional Safety, 49(9), 41–43. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
Sagarin, B. J., & Lawler-Sagarin, K. (2005). Critically evaluating competing theories: An exercise based on the Kitty Genovese murder. Teaching of Psychology, 32(3), 167–169. doi:10.1207/s15328023top3203_8
University of Maryland University College. UMUC Policies. (2010). Academic affairs, 130.25. Retrieved from http://www.umgc.edu/policy/research/research13025.shtml